Learn more. Egyptian independence has come to an end with the death of its famous queen, Cleopatra. By this date the Sumerians in Mesopotamia have developed the first true cities in history, and also the first proper writing system.The Old Kingdom of Ancient Egypt came to an end in c. 2200 BCE, and the country dissolved into 150 years of anarchy during the “First Intermediate” period. This in turn threatened the stability of the country, and the security of the Suez Canal. In this, British and French troops were sent in to guard the Canal Zone against Egypt’s threats to take it over; however, they were then forced to withdraw the troops in the face of international condemnation.Since 1958, Egypt has been united with Syria in a state called the United Arab Republic.The United Arab Republic, that union between Egypt and Syria, was broken in 1961 (after three years), with the Syrians cancelling it unilaterally.Egypt, along with other Arab countries, was defeated by Israel in the 6 Days War with Israel (1967). Egypt is now semi-independent from the Ottoman empire. Ever since then Egypt and much of Syria has been ruled by Mamluq sultans, who have successfully defended and expanded their state and pulled the government of their different lands under one centralized administration. This confirmed his de facto independence from the Ottoman empire, and in 1833 he demanded, and, due to British and French pressure, gained Syria from the sultan as payment for his part in the war of Greek independence. A series of great pharaohs – including Hatshepsut, one of the few queens to rule Ancient Egypt in her own right – have reunited the country and founded the “New Kingdom” (16th to 11th centuries BCE).Having consolidate their power within the Nile Valley by creating the most highly centralised state system Ancient Egypt was ever to experience, these rulers have swiftly imposed their control over the surrounding peoples to south, east and west.This is the start of the most glorious phase of Ancient Egypt’s long history.For Ancient Egypt in 1000 BCE, the last five centuries has seen its civilization reach a peak of imperial power and cultural achievement, and then descend into another period of weakness and division.It is during this period that the boy-king Tutankhamun briefly reigned, as well as Ancient Egypt’s most famous pharaoh, Ramesses II.The great days of Ancient Egypt are now long past. Napoleon himself secretly left his army in Egypt in 1799, and a British army finally reconquered the country for the Ottomans in 1801.A Turkish general, Muhammed Ali, was sent to Egypt to restore order, and he was soon acting as a semi-independent ruler. 1. Unfortunately, these military operations were expensive, as were his modernization programmes. He built hundreds of schools, modernized the administration, and introduced printing into the country (as a government monopoly). The Egyptian government faced bankruptcy. A little while later he started marching on Constantinople itself, with a view to replacing the Ottoman regime with one of his own.This part of the Ottoman dominions experienced direct European military might when Napoleon invaded it in 1798, utterly defeating local Mamluq forces at the Battle of the Pyramids. One of the caliph’s armies restored them to the caliph’s control in 905, but thirty years later Egypt again became autonomous under a rebellious governor, Muhammad ibn Tughj (935). From then on the British have administered Egypt, even though the country remains nominally subordinate to the Turkish sultan.In World War 2, Egypt acted as a major base for British operations against the Axis forces in North Africa. Over the Nevertheless, Ancient Egyptian civilization remains very much alive. This confirmed his de facto independence from Constantinople, and in 1833 he demanded, and, due to British and French pressure, gained Syria from the sultan as payment for his part in the war of Greek independence.

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